🌍 CBSE 2026–27 · Social Science Code 087 · 2 Parts · 16 Themes

Social Science Tracker

History · Geography · Political Science · Economics. New integrated thematic syllabus 2026–27.

2
Parts
16
Themes
0
Sub-topics
0
School Covered
0
Self-Study Done
School0%
Self-study0%
Part 1Foundations of Society, Earth and Economy9 themes · 61 hours
Theme 1Understanding Social Science
Meaning, scope and relevance of Social Science | Indian perspective | interdisciplinary connections
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 1 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
1.1What is Social Science and why does it matter?
  • Social Science is the integrated study of human society β€” its evolution, structures, and dynamics through History, Geography, Political Science, and Economics.
  • It goes beyond factual understanding to include inquiry, interpretation, and analysis; helps students source and validate information, interpret data, and construct logical explanations.
  • Four disciplines and their scope: History (continuity and change over time), Geography (human-environment interaction and spatial patterns), Political Science (institutions, governance, democracy), Economics (production, distribution, consumption, markets).
  • Interdisciplinary approach: understanding a phenomenon like climate change requires all four disciplines β€” geography (patterns), history (cause over time), political science (policy/governance), economics (costs/trade-offs).
  • Indian perspective: Indian knowledge traditions (Vedic texts, Arthashastra, Chanakya, zero, Ayurveda, astronomy) have shaped social science thinking globally. NCF 2023 emphasises rootedness in India while maintaining a global outlook.
Key Terms & Data
Key CGsCG1-CG9: History, Geography, Polity, Economics + India's contributions
Theme 2Shaping of the Earth's Surface
Plate tectonics, interior of Earth, weathering and erosion, landforms, natural disasters
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
2.1Theory of Plate Tectonics and Interior of the Earth
  • The Earth's lithosphere (crust + upper mantle) is broken into about 15 major tectonic plates that move very slowly (a few cm per year) on the semi-molten asthenosphere.
  • Three types of plate boundaries: Convergent (plates move toward each other β€” subduction, mountain formation, e.g., Himalayas from India-Eurasian collision), Divergent (plates move apart β€” rift valleys, mid-ocean ridges, e.g., Mid-Atlantic Ridge), Transform (plates slide past each other β€” earthquakes, e.g., San Andreas Fault).
  • Interior layers: Crust (outermost, 5–70 km), Mantle (2,900 km, mostly solid but plastic), Outer Core (liquid iron-nickel, creates Earth's magnetic field), Inner Core (solid iron-nickel, extremely hot ~5,000Β°C).
  • Continental drift theory: Alfred Wegener (1912) proposed that all continents were once joined as Pangaea, which broke apart ~200 million years ago into Laurasia (north) and Gondwana (south).
Key Terms & Data
Earth's layersCrust (5-70km) β†’ Mantle (2900km) β†’ Outer Core (liquid) β†’ Inner Core (solid)
India-Asia collisionStarted ~50 million years ago β†’ Himalayas still rising β‰ˆ 1 cm/year
2.2Weathering, Erosion and Agents of Gradation
  • Weathering: breakdown of rocks IN PLACE (no movement). Types: Physical/Mechanical (freeze-thaw, thermal expansion), Chemical (oxidation, carbonation, hydrolysis), Biological (tree roots, burrowing animals).
  • Erosion: wearing away and transport of rock material by agents. Main agents of gradation (denudation): rivers, wind, glaciers, waves/sea, underground water.
  • River erosion: V-shaped valleys, gorges, waterfalls (youthful stage) β†’ meanders, oxbow lakes (mature stage) β†’ deltas, floodplains (old stage).
  • Wind erosion (Aeolian): creates mushroom rocks, barchans (crescent dunes), loess deposits; prominent in arid regions (Thar Desert).
  • Glacial erosion: U-shaped valleys, cirques, moraines, fjords; glaciers act as "rivers of ice".
  • Waves: cliffs, sea caves, arches, stacks; deposition creates beaches, sand bars, spits.
  • Underground water (Karst topography): dissolution of limestone β†’ sinkholes, stalactites, stalagmites, caves.
Key Terms & Data
River stagesYouthful (V-valley, falls) β†’ Mature (meanders) β†’ Old (delta, floodplain)
Glacial featuresErosion: U-valley, cirque, horn | Deposition: moraine, till, drumlin
2.3Major landforms and Natural Disasters
  • Major landforms: Mountains (fold β€” Himalayas, block β€” Vindhyas, volcanic β€” Deccan Trap); Plateaus (tablelands, e.g., Deccan Plateau, Chotanagpur); Plains (depositional, e.g., Indo-Gangetic); Valleys; Coasts.
  • Earthquakes: sudden shaking caused by energy release along faults; measured by Richter Scale (magnitude) and Mercalli Scale (intensity); India's seismic zones I–V.
  • Volcanoes: magma reaching the surface; shield (gentle slopes, lava flows, e.g., Hawaii), composite/stratovolcano (violent explosions, e.g., Vesuvius); India's only active volcano: Barren Island (A&N).
  • Landslides and avalanches: triggered by heavy rain, earthquakes, deforestation on slopes; common in Himalayas and Western Ghats.
  • GLOF (Glacial Lake Outburst Flood): sudden release of water from glacial lakes due to moraine failure; major threat in Himalayas.
  • Dust storms: sudden violent windstorms carrying dust; common in Rajasthan and UP in summer.
Key Terms & Data
Richter scaleEach unit = 10Γ— more ground motion; β‰₯7.0 = major earthquake
India seismic zonesZone II (low) β†’ Zone V (very high, e.g., NE India, Kashmir, Gujarat coast)
Theme 3Atmosphere and Climate
Atmospheric structure, Indian monsoon, climate change, carbon footprint, floods
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
3.1Structure and composition of the atmosphere
  • Atmosphere: a thin blanket of gases held by gravity. Composition: Nitrogen 78%, Oxygen 21%, Argon 0.9%, COβ‚‚ 0.04%, + water vapour and trace gases.
  • Layers (bottom to top): Troposphere (0–12 km, weather occurs here, temperature decreases with altitude); Stratosphere (12–50 km, contains ozone layer, temperature increases); Mesosphere (50–80 km, coldest layer, meteors burn here); Thermosphere/Ionosphere (80–700 km, very hot, radio waves reflect here); Exosphere (700+ km, satellites orbit here, merges with space).
  • Weather elements: temperature, pressure, humidity, clouds, precipitation, wind. Climate = average weather over 30+ years.
  • Pressure belts and winds: ITCZ (equatorial low pressure), subtropical highs (30Β°N/S), subpolar lows (60Β°N/S), polar highs (90Β°N/S).
Key Terms & Data
Atmospheric layersTroposphere β†’ Stratosphere (ozone) β†’ Mesosphere β†’ Thermosphere β†’ Exosphere
Lapse rate (troposphere)Temperature falls β‰ˆ 6.5Β°C per 1,000 m altitude gain
3.2Seasons of India and the monsoon
  • India's four seasons: Cold (Dec–Feb), Hot/Summer (Mar–May), South-West Monsoon (Jun–Sep), Retreating monsoon (Oct–Nov).
  • Monsoon mechanism: "Mausim" (Arabic = season). Summer: land heats faster β†’ low pressure over Thar Desert β†’ moist SW winds drawn from Indian Ocean; ITCZ shifts north, trade winds cross equator and arrive as SW monsoon.
  • Two branches of SW monsoon: Arabian Sea branch (hits Western Ghats β†’ heavy rain on west coast; rain shadow on Deccan) and Bay of Bengal branch (enters Assam/NE India β†’ UP β†’ Punjab).
  • NE monsoon (retreating): Oct–Dec; winds blow from NE over Bay of Bengal, pick up moisture β†’ heavy rain on Tamil Nadu coast.
  • El NiΓ±o: warming of Pacific waters β†’ weakens Indian monsoon β†’ droughts. La NiΓ±a: opposite β†’ floods.
  • Key rainfall facts: Mawsynram (Meghalaya) β€” highest rainfall in world (β‰ˆ11,872 mm/year); Jaisalmer β€” lowest (<100 mm/year).
Key Terms & Data
Mawsynramβ‰ˆ 11,872 mm/year β€” world's highest rainfall
India average rainfallβ‰ˆ 120 cm/year; 70% during SW monsoon (June–Sept)
3.3Climate change, carbon footprint and floods
  • Climate change: long-term shift in global temperatures and weather patterns; primarily human-caused since 1800s (burning fossil fuels).
  • Greenhouse gases: COβ‚‚, CHβ‚„, Nβ‚‚O, CFCs trap outgoing infrared radiation β†’ Earth warms. Global average temperature has risen β‰ˆ 1.1Β°C since pre-industrial era.
  • Consequences: rising sea levels (melting ice), more intense cyclones, droughts and floods, coral bleaching, species extinction, disrupted monsoon patterns.
  • Carbon footprint: total greenhouse gas emissions caused by an individual, event, organisation or product. Reduce by: using renewables, energy efficiency, less meat, public transport.
  • Floods: caused by heavy rainfall exceeding drainage capacity, cyclones, dam failure, deforestation (less absorption), urbanisation (impermeable surfaces). India's flood-prone states: Assam, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal.
  • Flood mitigation: dams and embankments, afforestation, flood-plain zoning, early warning systems.
Key Terms & Data
Paris Agreement (2015)Limit global warming to 1.5Β°C above pre-industrial levels
India's NDCNet zero by 2070; 50% electricity from renewables by 2030
Theme 4Early Humans and Beginning of Civilisation
Prehistory, archaeological ages, Harappan civilisation, Egypt, Mesopotamia, China
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
4.1Prehistoric humans and archaeological ages
  • Prehistory: period before written records. Organised into archaeological ages based on tools: Palaeolithic (Old Stone Age β€” chipped stones, 2 million–10,000 BCE), Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age β€” microliths, 10,000–7,000 BCE), Neolithic (New Stone Age β€” polished tools, farming, 7,000–4,000 BCE), Chalcolithic (Copper-Stone, 4,000–3,000 BCE), Bronze Age (3,000–1,000 BCE), Iron Age (from 1,000 BCE).
  • Human ancestors: Australopithecus (3–4 million years ago, bipedal, small brain), Homo habilis ("handy man", made tools), Homo erectus (fire, moved out of Africa), Homo sapiens (anatomically modern humans, 300,000 years ago).
  • Palaeolithic lifestyle: nomadic hunter-gatherers; used fire; lived in caves and rock shelters; cave paintings (Bhimbetka, MP β€” UNESCO World Heritage).
  • Neolithic revolution: transition from hunting-gathering to settled farming (~10,000 BCE in Fertile Crescent). Domestication of plants (wheat, barley, rice) and animals (cattle, sheep, goats, dogs).
  • Consequences of Neolithic revolution: permanent settlements, population growth, surplus food, specialisation of labour, early trade, social hierarchies, eventual development of cities.
Key Terms & Data
Stone Age timelinePalaeolithic (2M–10,000 BCE) β†’ Mesolithic β†’ Neolithic (7,000 BCE) β†’ Bronze Age β†’ Iron Age
Bhimbetka cavesMP, India | Oldest cave paintings in South Asia | 30,000+ years old
4.2Harappan Civilisation (2600–1900 BCE)
  • Also called Indus Valley Civilisation (IVC); flourished in northwestern India/Pakistan along Indus River and its tributaries.
  • Major cities: Mohenjo-daro (Pakistan), Harappa (Pakistan), Lothal (Gujarat), Dholavira (Gujarat), Rakhigarhi (Haryana β€” largest site in India).
  • Town planning: grid-pattern streets, two-storey brick houses, covered drains (world's first urban sanitation), Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro, granaries, citadel and lower town.
  • Economy: agriculture (wheat, barley, cotton β€” world's first cultivators of cotton), trade with Mesopotamia, standardised weights and measures.
  • Script: Harappan script (still undeciphered β€” boustrophedon, right-to-left). No palace or temple identified β€” nature of governance unclear.
  • Decline: multiple theories β€” climate change/drought, Ghaggar-Hakra river drying up (possibly ancient Saraswati), flooding, or gradual migration eastward (~1900 BCE).
Key Terms & Data
IVC period2600–1900 BCE (mature phase); preceded by Early Harappan ~3300 BCE
Areaβ‰ˆ 1.3 million kmΒ² β€” larger than Egypt and Mesopotamia combined
RakhigarhiLargest Harappan site; Haryana, India; DNA studies in 2019
4.3Mesopotamian, Egyptian and Chinese civilisations
  • Mesopotamia ("land between rivers" β€” Tigris and Euphrates, modern Iraq): Sumerian civilisation (3500 BCE); cuneiform script (wedge-shaped, world's first writing); ziggurats (stepped temples); Code of Hammurabi (1754 BCE β€” earliest comprehensive legal code); city-states (Ur, Uruk, Babylon).
  • Egypt: Nile River civilisation (3100 BCE); hieroglyphic script; pharaohs (god-kings); pyramids (Giza β€” built ~2560 BCE, Seven Wonders of Ancient World); mummification; 365-day calendar; papyrus paper.
  • China: Yellow River (Huang He) civilisation; Shang dynasty (1600 BCE) β€” first writing on oracle bones; Great Wall; Silk Road trade; inventions: paper, printing, compass, gunpowder.
  • India's connections: trade between Harappan civilisation and Mesopotamia well-documented; carnelian beads and cotton traded; Harappan seals found in Mesopotamia.
Key Terms & Data
First writing systemSumerian cuneiform β‰ˆ 3200 BCE (Mesopotamia)
Great Pyramid GizaBuilt β‰ˆ 2560 BCE for Pharaoh Khufu; 138.5 m tall; 2.3 million stone blocks
Hammurabi's Code1754 BCE; 282 laws; "eye for an eye" principle; carved on basalt stele
Theme 5State and Society (upto 1000 CE)
Vedic Age, Mahajanapadas, Mauryan and Gupta empires, knowledge traditions, trade networks
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
5.1Vedic Age and early political institutions
  • Vedic period (1500–500 BCE): Named after the Vedas (Rigveda, Samaveda, Yajurveda, Atharvaveda). Rigveda is the oldest text.
  • Early Vedic society: tribal, pastoral; Sabha (assembly of elders) and Samiti (general assembly) β€” early democratic institutions.
  • Later Vedic period: settled agriculture; varna system (Brahmin, Kshatriya, Vaishya, Shudra) consolidated; Sanskrit texts (Upanishads β€” philosophical thought; "Aham Brahmasmi").
  • Mahajanapadas (600–300 BCE): 16 powerful kingdoms/republics (ganas and sanghas). Notable: Magadha (Ajatashatru, then Nanda dynasty), Vajji confederacy (Vaishali β€” world's earliest republic), Kashi (Varanasi), Kosala.
  • Mauryan Empire (322–185 BCE): Chandragupta Maurya (founded with help of Chanakya/Kautilya); Ashoka (273–232 BCE) β€” greatest emperor; Arthashastra by Kautilya β€” earliest treatise on governance, economics, and diplomacy.
Key Terms & Data
Vedic periodEarly Vedic: 1500–1000 BCE (pastoral) | Later Vedic: 1000–500 BCE (agrarian)
ArthashastraKautilya (~300 BCE) β€” economics, statecraft, military strategy, governance
Ashoka's empireLargest Indian empire before British; capital Pataliputra (Patna)
5.2Quest for knowledge β€” Indian educational and cultural heritage
  • Takshashila (Taxila): world's earliest university (700 BCE); students from Greece, China, Persia; subjects: medicine, law, mathematics, astronomy, philosophy, military science.
  • Nalanda University: founded ~5th century CE; 10,000+ students, 2,000 teachers; subjects: Buddhism, Hinduism, logic, medicine, mathematics; students from Korea, Japan, China, Sri Lanka; destroyed by Bakhtiyar Khilji (1193 CE).
  • Major Indian contributions (integrated): Mathematics β€” Aryabhata (zero, pi, decimal system, heliocentric model 499 CE); Brahmagupta (algebra, negative numbers, zero's rules); Bhaskaracharya (calculus concepts).
  • Medicine β€” Charaka (Charaka Samhita β€” internal medicine), Sushruta (Sushruta Samhita β€” surgery, rhinoplasty, cataract surgery); Ayurveda still practised.
  • Astronomy: Aryabhata calculated Earth's circumference, rotation, eclipses; Indian calendar (Panchanga) more accurate than Julian calendar.
  • Philosophy: six systems of Indian philosophy (Shaddarshana) β€” Samkhya, Yoga, Nyaya, Vaisheshika, Mimamsa, Vedanta. Buddhism (Gautama Buddha, 563–483 BCE) and Jainism (Mahavira, 599–527 BCE) β€” non-violence (ahimsa) as core value.
Key Terms & Data
AryabhataBorn 476 CE | Calculated Ο€ β‰ˆ 3.1416 | Heliocentric model | Decimal place value
Nalanda5th–12th century CE | β‰ˆ 9 million books | 10,000 students at peak
Sushrutaβ‰ˆ 600 BCE | 300+ surgical procedures | first cataract, rhinoplasty surgeries
5.3Trade routes, guilds and India's economy
  • Ancient India was a major trading nation. Silk Route (overland): India–Central Asia–China–Mediterranean; items: silk, spices, cotton, gems, indigo.
  • Maritime routes: Indian traders sailed to Southeast Asia, Arabia, East Africa, Rome. Major ports: Lothal (Harappan), Broach/Bharuch, Masulipatnam, Arikamedu (near Puducherry β€” Roman pottery found).
  • Guilds (Shreni): organised trade associations of merchants and craftsmen; maintained standards, resolved disputes, had political influence; similar to modern trade unions and chambers of commerce.
  • India's share of world GDP: estimated 25–33% in 1 CE (Angus Maddison data) β€” India was the world's largest economy for much of history until colonialism.
Key Terms & Data
India's world GDP shareβ‰ˆ 25-33% in 1 CE | fell to β‰ˆ 4% by 1947 under colonial rule
Silk Routeβ‰ˆ 4,000 km overland route | connected China to Rome via India | silk, spices, gems
Theme 6Democracy
Meaning and features of democracy, roots in India, types, world democratic systems
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
6.1Meaning and features of democracy
  • Democracy: a system of government in which supreme power is vested in the people and exercised by them directly (direct democracy β€” ancient Athens, modern referenda) or through freely elected representatives (representative/indirect democracy).
  • Key features of a democracy: (1) Free and fair elections; (2) Universal adult franchise; (3) Rule of law β€” everyone equal before law; (4) Fundamental rights and civil liberties; (5) Independent judiciary; (6) Separation of powers (Legislature, Executive, Judiciary); (7) Free press and media; (8) Protection of minority rights.
  • Direct vs Representative democracy: Direct β€” citizens vote on every issue (impractical for large populations); Representative β€” elect MPs/MLAs who make decisions on their behalf.
  • Abraham Lincoln's definition: "Government of the people, by the people, for the people."
Key Terms & Data
Key principleOne person, one vote, one value
Separation of powersLegislature (makes laws) | Executive (implements) | Judiciary (interprets)
6.2Roots of democracy in India
  • India's democratic traditions predate modern Western democracy by thousands of years.
  • Mahajanapadas (600–300 BCE): many were republics (gana-sanghas/gana-rajyas) with elected assemblies; Vaishali (Vajji confederacy) β€” often called world's first republic.
  • Gram Sabha (village assemblies): Uthiramerur inscriptions (Tamil Nadu, 10th century CE) detail how village committees were elected β€” qualifications, term limits, disqualification rules, voting methods.
  • Guilds (Shreni): self-governing bodies with elected leaders β€” democratic principles in economic life.
  • Buddhist Sangha: democratic decision-making β€” voting on issues, debate, consensus.
  • Modern Indian democracy: based on universal adult franchise (since 1950 β€” women and all adults could vote from the beginning, unlike USA or UK which had long struggles for women's suffrage).
Key Terms & Data
Uthiramerur inscriptions10th century CE, Tamil Nadu | Detailed village election rules β€” perhaps world's oldest election rulebook
India's first election1951-52; 173 million voters; world's largest democratic exercise at the time
6.3Types of democracy and world systems
  • Parliamentary system: executive (Prime Minister + Cabinet) is part of and accountable to legislature; government can be removed by no-confidence vote. Examples: India, UK, Canada, Australia, Japan.
  • Presidential system: President is both head of state and government; separately elected; not accountable to legislature in same way; cannot be easily removed. Examples: USA, Brazil, Mexico, France (semi-presidential).
  • Differences: PM can be removed by Parliament; President has fixed term. India chose parliamentary system (inspired by UK) because it provides more accountability.
  • Other systems: Federal democracy (power shared between centre and states β€” India, USA); Unitary democracy (power centralised β€” UK, France); Constitutional monarchy (UK β€” monarch is ceremonial head).
  • Challenges to democracy: money power, electoral fraud, voter intimidation, fake news/misinformation, religious/ethnic polarisation, corruption, authoritarianism creep.
Key Terms & Data
India vs USAIndia: Parliamentary (PM accountable to Parliament) | USA: Presidential (fixed 4-year term)
India's federal featuresUnion List | State List | Concurrent List (Article 246); Rajya Sabha represents states
Theme 7Elections
Importance of elections, electoral systems, ECI, delimitation, party system, anti-defection law
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
7.1Importance of elections and electoral systems
  • Elections are the mechanism through which citizens in a representative democracy choose their government, hold representatives accountable, and peacefully transfer power.
  • Three main electoral systems: (1) First Past the Post (FPTP/Plurality): candidate with most votes wins even without majority β€” used in India, UK, USA; simple but may not represent majority. (2) Proportional Representation (PR): seats allocated proportional to vote share β€” used in Israel, Germany; more representative. (3) Two-Round System: if no candidate gets majority, top two candidates face a run-off β€” used in France.
  • India uses FPTP: 543 Lok Sabha constituencies, each elects 1 member; voter votes for a candidate (not party).
  • Advantages of FPTP: simple to understand, provides stable majority governments, strong local representation. Disadvantages: winner may have minority of total votes, votes for losing candidates "wasted".
Key Terms & Data
FPTP formulaCandidate with MOST votes wins; no majority needed
Lok Sabha seats543 elected; reserved: 84 (SC) + 47 (ST) = 131 reserved
PR (contrast)10% vote share β†’ 10% of seats; more proportional but complex
7.2Election Commission of India (ECI)
  • ECI is an autonomous constitutional body (Article 324 of the Constitution) responsible for conducting free and fair elections in India.
  • Composition: Chief Election Commissioner (CEC) + Election Commissioners; appointed by President but can only be removed like a Supreme Court judge β€” ensuring independence.
  • Functions: superintend, direct, and control elections to Parliament, State Legislatures, President, Vice-President; enforce Model Code of Conduct; recognise political parties and allot symbols; de-register parties; adjudicate election disputes.
  • Model Code of Conduct (MCC): voluntary code of conduct for political parties during elections; prohibits use of government machinery, hate speech, bribery, and communal appeals.
  • Technology in elections: Electronic Voting Machines (EVMs) since 1999; VVPAT (Voter Verifiable Paper Audit Trail) since 2019 β€” voters see a paper slip confirming their vote.
  • NOTA (None of the Above): option introduced in 2013 by Supreme Court directive.
Key Terms & Data
ECI established25 January 1950; first CEC: Sukumar Sen
First general election1951-52; 173 million voters; 489 constituencies; took 68 phases over 6 months
EVM introducedFirst full election with EVMs: 1999 Lok Sabha election
7.3Delimitation, electoral rolls and party system
  • Delimitation: redrawing of electoral constituency boundaries based on population census data. Done by Delimitation Commission (a statutory body). Objective: equal representation β€” each constituency should have roughly equal population.
  • Last delimitation: 2002 (based on 2001 Census). Frozen until after 2026; next delimitation after 2026 census may increase Lok Sabha seats.
  • Electoral roll (voter list): list of registered voters for each constituency; updated annually by Electoral Registration Officers (EROs). Citizens must be: 18+ years, Indian citizen, ordinarily resident in constituency.
  • Enumerators: government officials who go door-to-door to update electoral rolls during revision period.
  • Party system in India: Multi-party system (unlike USA's two-party). National parties (recognised by ECI based on vote share): BJP, INC, AAP, BSP, CPI, CPM, NCP, etc. State parties (recognised in specific states). Coalition governments common at national level (NDA, UPA).
  • Anti-Defection Law (10th Schedule, 1985): prevents elected members from switching parties after election. If a member voluntarily gives up party membership or votes against party whip β†’ disqualified from membership of legislature. Reduces political instability but limits floor-crossing.
Key Terms & Data
Delimitation CommissionStatutory body; boundaries redrawn after census; last done 2002
Anti-Defection (1985)10th Schedule; Rajiv Gandhi government; prevents defection/floor-crossing
Coalition (India)NDA (since 1998) | UPA (2004-2014) | reflect multi-party system
Theme 8Building Blocks in Economics
Scarcity, opportunity cost, choice, three central problems, economic systems, welfare economy
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
8.1Scarcity, choice and opportunity cost
  • Economics: study of how individuals, firms, and societies allocate scarce resources among unlimited wants.
  • Scarcity: fundamental economic problem β€” resources (land, labour, capital, entrepreneurship) are LIMITED while human wants are UNLIMITED.
  • Choice: because of scarcity, every individual and society must make choices β€” what to produce, how to produce, for whom.
  • Opportunity cost: the value of the next-best alternative given up when making a choice. Example: choosing to study instead of working means the opportunity cost is the income you could have earned.
  • Economists study: production (how goods and services are created), distribution (how income and wealth are allocated), consumption (how goods and services are used), and exchange (trade).
Key Terms & Data
Opportunity costValue of best alternative forgone = opportunity cost of choice made
ExampleIf you buy a phone for β‚Ή20,000, opportunity cost = what else β‚Ή20,000 could buy
PPC (Production Possibility Curve)Shows maximum output combinations; any point on curve = efficient; inside = inefficient; outside = currently unattainable
8.2The three central problems of an economy
  • Every economy β€” regardless of system β€” must answer three fundamental questions:
  • (1) WHAT to produce? Which goods and services to produce, and in what quantities. Trade-off: guns vs. butter (military vs. consumer goods); basic needs vs. luxury goods.
  • (2) HOW to produce? Which production methods and technology to use. Labour-intensive (more workers, less machines β€” developing countries) vs. Capital-intensive (more machines, fewer workers β€” developed countries).
  • (3) FOR WHOM to produce? How to distribute the output among members of society. Based on ability to pay (market economy) or need (planned economy) or some mix (mixed economy).
  • These three problems are universal β€” faced by every economy from the simplest village to the most complex nation.
Key Terms & Data
3 central problemsWHAT to produce | HOW to produce | FOR WHOM to produce
Factor of productionLand (natural resources) | Labour (human effort) | Capital (tools/money) | Enterprise (organising)
8.3Economic systems and welfare economy
  • Free market (capitalist) economy: private ownership; prices determined by demand and supply; profit motive; minimal government intervention. Examples: USA (broadly). Advantage: efficiency, innovation. Disadvantage: inequality, market failures.
  • Centrally planned (socialist/command) economy: government owns means of production; central authority decides WHAT, HOW, FOR WHOM. Example: former USSR. Advantage: reduces inequality, ensures basic needs. Disadvantage: inefficiency, no incentive, lack of choice.
  • Mixed economy: combines elements of both. Most modern economies are mixed. India (post-1991): market-oriented but with significant government role in infrastructure, education, health. Public sector (government-owned) + private sector coexist.
  • Welfare economy: government actively intervenes to ensure minimum standard of living for all β€” social security, public healthcare, free education, food security (PDS), employment guarantee (MGNREGA). Inspired by John Maynard Keynes.
  • Social safety nets: programmes protecting citizens from economic hardship β€” PDS, PM Awas Yojana, MGNREGA, PM-JAY (health), NPR.
Key Terms & Data
Free marketPrice mechanism allocates resources | Adam Smith "invisible hand" (1776)
India's modelMixed economy + welfare state; liberalised since 1991 (LPG reforms)
MGNREGA2005; guarantees 100 days of unskilled work per rural household per year
Theme 9The Price Puzzle: What Drives the Market
Law of demand and supply, equilibrium, price ceilings, market failures, public goods
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
9.1Law of Demand
  • Demand: quantity of a good consumers are willing and able to buy at various prices, other things being equal (ceteris paribus).
  • Law of Demand: as price increases, quantity demanded decreases (inverse relationship); as price falls, quantity demanded increases.
  • Demand curve: slopes downward from left to right. Shift in demand curve (change in demand): caused by changes in income, tastes, prices of related goods, population, expectations.
  • Substitutes: if price of tea rises, demand for coffee increases (positive cross-price elasticity). Complements: if price of petrol rises, demand for cars falls (negative cross-price elasticity).
  • Exceptions to Law of Demand: Giffen goods (inferior goods where higher price β†’ more demand, e.g., bread for the very poor), Veblen goods (luxury/status goods where higher price β†’ more demand, e.g., designer watches).
Key Terms & Data
Law of DemandPrice ↑ β†’ Quantity Demanded ↓ (inverse relationship)
Demand scheduleAt β‚Ή10: demand 100 units | At β‚Ή20: demand 70 units | At β‚Ή30: demand 40 units
Shift vs MovementMovement: along curve (price change) | Shift: whole curve moves (income/taste change)
9.2Law of Supply and Market Equilibrium
  • Supply: quantity of a good producers are willing and able to offer for sale at various prices, ceteris paribus.
  • Law of Supply: as price increases, quantity supplied increases (direct relationship); supply curve slopes upward.
  • Factors shifting supply: change in input costs, technology, number of sellers, government taxes/subsidies, expectations.
  • Market equilibrium: the price at which quantity demanded = quantity supplied. At equilibrium, no excess supply or demand; market "clears". Price settles at equilibrium.
  • Surplus (excess supply): when price is ABOVE equilibrium β€” producers supply more than consumers want; price will fall to equilibrium.
  • Shortage (excess demand): when price is BELOW equilibrium β€” consumers want more than producers supply; price will rise to equilibrium.
Key Terms & Data
Law of SupplyPrice ↑ β†’ Quantity Supplied ↑ (direct relationship)
Equilibrium conditionQuantity Demanded = Quantity Supplied β†’ Equilibrium Price
SurplusPrice > Equilibrium β†’ Surplus β†’ Price falls back to equilibrium
ShortagePrice < Equilibrium β†’ Shortage β†’ Price rises to equilibrium
9.3Market failures, price ceilings and public goods
  • Market failure: situation where free market fails to allocate resources efficiently β€” market outcome is not socially optimal.
  • Types of market failure: (1) Externalities β€” costs or benefits borne by third parties not involved in transaction. Negative: pollution (factory pollutes river β€” third-party harm); Positive: vaccination (herd immunity β€” benefit to all). (2) Information asymmetry: one party has more/better information (insurance β€” moral hazard, adverse selection). (3) Public goods: non-excludable + non-rival; market provides too little (street lights, national defence, public parks).
  • Price ceiling: maximum legal price set below equilibrium by government (to make goods affordable). Example: Maximum retail price (MRP) on medicines, rent control, MSP as price floor. Effect: causes shortage (quantity demanded > quantity supplied) and black markets.
  • Price floor: minimum legal price set above equilibrium. Example: Minimum Support Price (MSP) for farmers. Effect: causes surplus.
  • Government interventions: taxes (discourage negative externalities like pollution), subsidies (encourage positive externalities like education), regulation, public provision.
Key Terms & Data
Price ceiling effectPrice ceiling < Equilibrium β†’ Shortage (QD > QS) + black markets
Price floor effectPrice floor > Equilibrium β†’ Surplus (QS > QD)
Public goodNon-excludable (can't stop people using it) + Non-rival (use by one doesn't reduce for others)
Negative externality exampleFactory pollution: social cost > private cost β†’ market overproduces β†’ tax needed
Part 2Oceans, Civilisation, Authority and Enterprise7 themes · 55 hours
Theme 10Oceans and Life
Ocean relief, waves, tides, currents, marine resources, cyclones, tsunamis, maritime law
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
10.1Ocean relief and movement of ocean water
  • Ocean floor features: Continental Shelf (shallow, 0–200m, rich in resources), Continental Slope (steep descent), Abyssal Plain (flat deep ocean floor, 3000–6000m), Ocean Trenches (deepest points β€” Mariana Trench, 11,034m), Mid-Ocean Ridges (underwater mountain ranges).
  • Waves: caused by wind blowing over water surface; the water particles move in circles β€” do not travel forward; only energy moves forward. Destructive waves: high, steep, powerful (erosion); Constructive waves: low, gentle (deposition, form beaches).
  • Tides: periodic rise and fall of sea level due to gravitational pull of Moon and Sun. Spring tides: Moon and Sun aligned (new/full moon) β†’ extra high/low tides. Neap tides: Moon and Sun at right angles (quarter moon) β†’ moderate tides. India's highest tides: Gulf of Khambhat (Cambay).
  • Ocean currents: large-scale movements of ocean water. Warm currents flow from tropics toward poles (Gulf Stream β€” keeps NW Europe warm); Cold currents flow from poles toward tropics (Labrador Current). Currents affect climate, fish distribution, navigation.
Key Terms & Data
Ocean depth zonesSunlight zone (0-200m) | Twilight zone (200-1000m) | Midnight zone (1000-4000m) | Abyssal zone (4000m+)
Spring vs neap tidesSpring: alignment (new/full moon) β†’ strongest | Neap: right angle (quarter moon) β†’ weakest
Mariana Trench11,034 m deep | Pacific Ocean | deepest point on Earth's surface
10.2Marine resources and conservation
  • Marine resources: fish (food and livelihoods), oil and gas (below sea floor), minerals (manganese nodules, polymetallic sulphides), coral reefs (biodiversity), salt.
  • India's EEZ (Exclusive Economic Zone): 200 nautical miles from baseline; India has rights over all resources in this zone. India's EEZ = β‰ˆ 2.37 million kmΒ².
  • Overfishing: a major threat β€” depletes fish stocks faster than they can replenish; threatens food security and livelihoods of millions of coastal communities.
  • Conservation measures: seasonal fishing bans (India bans trawling during monsoon breeding season), marine protected areas (MPAs), sustainable fishing quotas, international agreements (UNCLOS β€” UN Convention on Law of the Sea, 1982).
Key Terms & Data
EEZ200 nautical miles from coastline; country has exclusive rights to resources
UNCLOS (1982)International law of the sea; 168 parties; defines EEZ, territorial waters (12 nm)
10.3Cyclones and Tsunamis
  • Cyclone (tropical): intense low-pressure storm system with strong rotating winds and heavy rain; form over warm tropical oceans. Called: Cyclone (Indian Ocean), Hurricane (Atlantic/Pacific), Typhoon (NW Pacific).
  • Formation: warm sea water (>26Β°C) evaporates rapidly β†’ moisture-laden air rises β†’ forms a spinning low-pressure system (Coriolis effect). Eye: calm centre; Eyewall: most violent part.
  • India's vulnerable coasts: Odisha, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu (Bay of Bengal cyclones); Gujarat (Arabian Sea cyclones less common).
  • Tsunami: series of ocean waves caused by underwater earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, or landslides. Travel at jet speed (700 km/h in open ocean), but slow down and grow taller near shore. 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami β€” deadliest in modern history (230,000+ dead in 14 countries).
  • Early warning systems: INCOIS (Indian National Centre for Ocean Information Services) operates tsunami warning system; Doppler radar for cyclone tracking; community-level dissemination crucial.
Key Terms & Data
Cyclone speedSevere cyclonic storm: sustained winds β‰₯ 89 km/h; Super cyclone: β‰₯ 221 km/h
Tsunami speedOpen ocean: β‰ˆ 700 km/h; near shore: slows to 50 km/h but height increases dramatically
2004 Tsunami26 Dec 2004 | 9.1 magnitude earthquake off Sumatra | 230,000+ deaths | 14 countries
Theme 11Life on Earth
Major biomes, biosphere reserves in India, forests, ecotourism, forest dwellers, conservation
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
11.1Biomes of the world
  • Biome: a large-scale ecosystem characterised by a specific climate, vegetation, and animal life.
  • Tropical rainforest (Equatorial): near equator; high rainfall (>200 cm) and temperature; highest biodiversity on Earth; Amazon (South America), Congo Basin (Africa), Western Ghats/NE India; stratified canopy; rapid nutrient cycling.
  • Tropical grassland (Savanna): distinct wet and dry seasons; tall grasses, scattered trees; Africa (Serengeti), Australia; large herbivores (zebra, wildebeest), predators (lion, cheetah).
  • Desert: <25 cm annual rainfall; extreme temperatures; Sahara (hot), Antarctica (cold); adaptations: cacti, camels, fennec fox.
  • Temperate grassland (Steppe, Prairie): continental interiors; seasonal temperature variation; no trees; highly fertile soils; Eurasian Steppe, American Prairie.
  • Temperate deciduous forest: moderate rainfall and temperature; trees shed leaves in winter; oak, maple, beech; eastern USA, Europe, East Asia.
  • Coniferous forest (Taiga/Boreal): subarctic; long cold winters; evergreen conifers (pine, spruce, fir); world's largest terrestrial biome; Russia, Canada.
  • Tundra: Arctic/alpine; permafrost; very short growing season; lichens, mosses, dwarf shrubs; caribou, polar bear.
Key Terms & Data
Biodiversity hotspotRegion with >1,500 endemic plant species + lost >70% habitat | India has 4: Himalayas, Western Ghats, Indo-Burma, Sundaland
11.2Biosphere reserves, forests and ecotourism in India
  • Biosphere Reserve: large protected area with a core zone (strictly protected), buffer zone (limited research), and transition zone (sustainable human use).
  • India has 18 Biosphere Reserves; 12 are UNESCO-designated (Man and Biosphere Programme). Notable: Nilgiri (India's first, 1986), Sundarban, Nanda Devi, Great Nicobar, Gulf of Mannar.
  • Forest cover in India: β‰ˆ 21.7% of total geographic area (2021 FSI report); target is 33% (National Forest Policy 1988).
  • Forest Act 2023 (new): replaces Indian Forest Act 1927; aims to promote afforestation on non-forest land; allows carbon credits trading β€” controversial.
  • Ecotourism: responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves the wellbeing of local people. Benefits: income for forest communities, incentive to conserve. Examples: Kaziranga, Sunderbans, Jim Corbett.
Key Terms & Data
India's forest coverβ‰ˆ 21.7% of area (2021); target 33% as per National Forest Policy 1988
Biosphere Reserves India18 total; 12 UNESCO-recognised; Nilgiri = first (1986)
11.3Forest dwellers, livelihoods and government efforts
  • Forest dwellers (Adivasis/Scheduled Tribes): approximately 10 crore people in India depend on forests for food, fuel, medicine, and cultural identity.
  • Historical marginalisation: colonial forest laws (Indian Forest Act 1865/1927) restricted traditional rights to collect forest produce, graze animals, practise shifting cultivation.
  • Forest Rights Act (FRA) 2006: recognises rights of forest-dwelling communities over land and resources they have traditionally used; gives individual and community forest rights; β‰ˆ 24 lakh titles granted so far.
  • PESA (Panchayats Extension to Scheduled Areas) Act 1996: extends local self-governance to tribal areas; Gram Sabha (village assembly) has key role in managing natural resources.
  • Challenges: land acquisition for mining and infrastructure often displaces tribal communities; deforestation reduces biodiversity and disrupts forest-dependent livelihoods.
Key Terms & Data
FRA 2006Forest Rights Act; recognises Adivasi rights to forest land and produce; β‰ˆ 24 lakh titles given
PESA 1996Extends Panchayati Raj to Schedule V tribal areas; empowers Gram Sabha over local resources
Theme 12Resistance and Resilience (1000–1700 CE)
Regional kingdoms, Bhakti tradition, art and architecture, forts, Indian economy 1000-1700 CE
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
12.1Regional kingdoms and resistance to invasions
  • After the decline of the Gupta Empire (6th century CE), India fragmented into powerful regional kingdoms β€” Cholas (south), Rashtrakutas, Chalukyas, Gurjara-Pratiharas (north), Pallavas.
  • Rajput kingdoms (7th–12th CE): dominated north India; known for military prowess and chivalry (rajput code); Prithviraj Chauhan (Delhi/Ajmer); Rani Padmavati (Chittor). Rajputs formed alliances and confederacies to resist Ghaznavid and Ghurid invasions.
  • Chola Empire (9th–13th CE): Rajaraja Chola I, Rajendra Chola I β€” powerful naval empire; controlled Sri Lanka, parts of Southeast Asia; Brihadeeswarar Temple (Thanjavur β€” UNESCO, 1010 CE).
  • Vijayanagara Empire (1336–1646 CE): founded by Harihara and Bukka (Sangama dynasty) to resist Deccan Sultanates; capital Hampi (UNESCO World Heritage); Krishnadevaraya (1509–1529) β€” greatest ruler, patron of Telugu literature.
  • Delhi Sultanate (1206–1526 CE): five dynasties β€” Slave, Khalji (Alauddin Khalji repelled Mongols), Tughlaq, Sayyid, Lodi. Babur defeated Ibrahim Lodi at First Battle of Panipat (1526) β†’ founded Mughal Empire.
Key Terms & Data
First Battle of Panipat1526 β€” Babur vs Ibrahim Lodi; gunpowder/artillery vs traditional cavalry; Mughal Empire begins
Vijayanagara peakKrishnadevaraya (1509-29); Hampi as capital; one of the world's richest cities then
Chola naval powerRajendra Chola conquered Sri Lanka and Malayan peninsula; sent naval expeditions to Southeast Asia (1025 CE)
12.2Bhakti tradition and cultural developments
  • Bhakti movement (7th–17th CE): devotional movement emphasising direct personal connection with God, cutting across caste lines; challenged Brahmanical orthodoxy.
  • Key Bhakti saints: Alvars (Vaishnavite, Tamil, 6th–9th CE), Nayanmars (Shaivite, Tamil), Ramanuja (12th CE, Vishishtadvaita), Kabir (15th CE β€” opposed caste, composed dohas; influenced Hinduism and Islam equally), Mirabai (16th CE, Rajputana, devotion to Krishna), Tukaram (Maharashtra), Guru Nanak (1469–1539 β€” founded Sikhism; stressed equality, one God).
  • Sufi tradition (Islam): mystical branch emphasising love and devotion over ritual; brought Islam closer to common people; major orders in India: Chishti (Moinuddin Chishti, Ajmer), Suhrawardi, Qadiri. Sufi khanqahs (lodges) were centres of music, poetry, healing.
  • Architecture: regional temple styles flourished β€” Nagara (north, curvilinear shikhara), Dravida (south, gopuram/towered gateway), Vesara (hybrid). Major temples: Khajuraho (Chandelas, 10th CE), Sun Temple Konark (13th CE), Meenakshi Temple Madurai.
Key Terms & Data
Guru Nanak1469–1539; born Nankana Sahib (Pakistan); founded Sikhism; "Ek Onkar" (one formless God)
Kabir15th CE; weavers of Varanasi; dohas in Hindi; rejected idol worship and caste; influenced by both Hinduism and Sufism
Brihadeeswarar TempleThanjavur, 1010 CE; Rajaraja Chola I; UNESCO 1987; 66 m tall vimana; 80 ton capstone
12.3Forts, expansion of Indian economy 1000-1700 CE
  • Forts: served military, administrative and economic functions. Major fort-building eras: Rajput forts (Chittorgarh, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Gwalior), Deccan Sultanate forts (Golconda, Bidar, Bijapur), Mughal forts (Red Fort Delhi, Agra Fort, Lahore Fort β€” all UNESCO).
  • Military architecture: bastions, moats, multiple gateways, inner citadel; forts as seats of administration, treasuries and markets.
  • Economy: India had an estimated 25–30% share of world GDP in 1700 CE (Angus Maddison). Textile exports: Indian cotton textiles (muslin, calico, chintz) were prized worldwide; "Dacca muslin" was so fine it was called "woven air."
  • Major industries: textile weaving, iron smelting (Wootz steel β€” exported to Arabia and Europe, basis of "Damascus steel"), shipbuilding (Indian ships used in trade), spice trade (Malabar Coast β€” pepper, cardamom).
  • Trade routes: Silk Route (overland via Central Asia), maritime routes to Southeast Asia, Arabia, East Africa, Europe (Portuguese arrived 1498).
Key Terms & Data
India GDP 1700 CEβ‰ˆ 24% of world GDP (Maddison); fell to 4% by 1947 due to colonialism
Wootz/Damascus steelIndian high-carbon steel; produced in south India; exported to Arabia; legendary for strength and sharpness
ChittorgarhRajasthan; largest fort in India (β‰ˆ 700 acres); Rajput resistance; Siege of 1303, 1535, 1568 (Akbar)
Theme 13India and the World-I (1900 BCE–1200 CE)
Trade with ancient civilisations, cultural exchanges, Indian knowledge systems β€” global influence
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
13.1Trade and commerce with ancient civilisations
  • Harappan-Mesopotamian trade (2600–1900 BCE): carnelian beads, cotton, ivory from Harappa; copper, tin, wool from Mesopotamia. Harappan seals found in Ur and Kish (Iraq).
  • India-Greece-Rome trade (300 BCE–300 CE): spices, textiles, gems, ivory from India; gold, wine, olive oil from Rome. Roman historian Pliny complained that Rome was "drained" of gold to pay for Indian luxury goods. Arikamedu (near Puducherry) β€” major port; Roman coins, amphorae, pottery found.
  • India-Arabia trade: incense route; Arab traders in Malabar (Kerala); Arab word "al-Hind" for India; Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st CE Greek text) describes Indian Ocean trade.
  • India-Southeast Asia trade and cultural diffusion: "Indianisation" of Southeast Asia β€” Hinduism, Buddhism, Sanskrit language, art, temple architecture spread to Cambodia (Angkor Wat β€” Hindu temple), Java (Prambanan, Borobudur), Bali, Vietnam (Champa).
Key Terms & Data
Pliny quote (1st CE CE)"India drains our gold" β€” Rome's trade deficit with India; estimates: 550 million sesterces/year
Angkor WatCambodia; 12th century CE; largest Hindu temple complex; built by Khmer king Suryavarman II; dedicated to Vishnu
13.2Cultural connections and Indian influence abroad
  • Greece-India contact: Alexander the Great's Indian campaign (326 BCE); Greek accounts by Megasthenes (Indica); mutual influence in astronomy, medicine, philosophy; Gandhara art (Buddhist art with Greek influence β€” Buddha depicted with Greek features).
  • Central Asia connections: Silk Route traders; Kushana Empire (1st–3rd CE) β€” Kanishka I patronised Buddhism; Buddhism spread to China via Central Asia; Indian monks like Kumarajiva translated Sanskrit texts into Chinese.
  • China connections: Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang) β€” Chinese Buddhist pilgrim who visited India (630–645 CE) and studied at Nalanda; Fa Hien (4th CE) also described India.
  • Indian influence on Islamic Golden Age (8th–12th CE): Indian numerals (0–9) transmitted to Arabs (al-Khwarizmi's algebra) β†’ to Europe as "Arabic numerals"; Indian astronomy texts translated into Arabic; Indian medical texts (Charaka, Sushruta) translated by Hunayn ibn Ishaq.
Key Terms & Data
Indian numeralsDecimal system + zero β†’ Arab world (8th CE) β†’ Europe (12th CE) β†’ modern mathematics
Xuanzang (Hiuen Tsang)630-645 CE; visited India during Harsha's reign; studied 5 years at Nalanda; brought 657 Sanskrit texts to China
13.3Indian Knowledge Systems and global contributions
  • Mathematics: Zero (Ε›Ε«nya) β€” concept originated in India; Brahmagupta (628 CE) gave rules for computing with zero; Aryabhata's decimal place-value system; "algebra" comes from al-jabr (Arab term for Indian techniques); negative numbers.
  • Astronomy: Aryabhata β€” Earth rotates on its axis (499 CE), calculated Earth's circumference (39,968 km, actual 40,075 km), eclipse mechanism; Indian calendar more accurate than Julian calendar.
  • Medicine: Charaka Samhita (internal medicine); Sushruta Samhita (surgery β€” 300+ procedures, plastic surgery, cataract surgery, surgical instruments); Vagbhata (Ashtanga Hridayam); Ayurveda β€” holistic system based on tridosha (Vata, Pitta, Kapha).
  • Philosophy: Six systems of Indian philosophy (Shaddarshana); Upanishadic ideas influenced Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Emerson, Thoreau; ahimsa (non-violence) influenced Tolstoy, Martin Luther King Jr., Gandhi, Mandela.
  • Linguistics: Panini's Ashtadhyayi (4th BCE) β€” most comprehensive grammar of any ancient language; inspired modern linguistics and formal language theory; Sanskrit's grammatical precision inspired computer languages.
Key Terms & Data
Aryabhata (499 CE)Heliocentric model | Earth circumference β‰ˆ 39,968 km | Ο€ β‰ˆ 3.1416 | Decimal place value
Panini4th century BCE; Ashtadhyayi β€” 3,959 sutras; complete grammar of Sanskrit; most complete grammar of any ancient language
Zero (Ε›Ε«nya)Concept in Vedic period; Brahmagupta 628 CE gave 4 rules; via Arabs to Europe by 12th CE; revolutionised mathematics
Theme 14Authority
Roots of authority in Kautilya, danda and nyaya, constitutional justice, types of authority, citizen's role
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
14.1Roots of authority β€” Kautilya, danda and nyaya
  • Authority: the legitimate power or right to make decisions and be obeyed. Differs from power (which can be coercive); authority is accepted as legitimate.
  • Kautilya's Arthashastra (β‰ˆ300 BCE): earliest systematic treatise on statecraft, economics, and military strategy; prescribes how rulers should govern to maintain order and prosperity.
  • Danda: means "rod/staff" β€” represents coercive force, discipline, punishment. Kautilya emphasises that Danda (force/law) is essential to maintain social order β€” without it, the strong would oppress the weak.
  • Nyaya: means "justice" β€” the right or fair outcome. Authority must be rooted in justice, not just force.
  • Bala: means "strength" β€” both military and moral/administrative strength of the state.
  • Relationship: Danda (force/law) and Nyaya (justice) are the twin foundations of legitimate authority β€” force without justice is tyranny; justice without force cannot be implemented.
Key Terms & Data
ArthashastraKautilya/Chanakya β‰ˆ 300 BCE; 15 books; statecraft, economics, military, diplomacy; rediscovered 1905 CE
Danda β†’ Nyaya relationshipRighteous use of Danda (law/force) produces Nyaya (justice) β†’ prosperity and security
14.2Constitutional status of justice and security since ancient times
  • Ancient India had constitutional-like structures β€” Dharmashastra, Arthashastra, inscriptions (Ashoka's edicts, Uthiramerur) β€” that codified duties of rulers and rights of subjects.
  • Ashoka's edicts (3rd century BCE): inscribed on rocks and pillars across the subcontinent; described his policy of dhamma (righteous rule); established welfare measures (hospitals, wells, rest-houses); committed to non-violence and tolerance of all religions.
  • Modern constitutional security: Indian Constitution (1950) guarantees justice (social, economic, political), liberty, equality, fraternity in Preamble; Fundamental Rights (Part III); Directive Principles of State Policy (Part IV) guide welfare governance.
  • Right to Constitutional Remedies (Article 32): "Heart and soul of Constitution" (Ambedkar); allows citizens to directly approach Supreme Court if Fundamental Rights are violated β€” writs: Habeas Corpus (produce the person), Mandamus (order official to perform duty), Prohibition (stop court from exceeding jurisdiction), Certiorari (quash lower court order), Quo Warranto (by what authority).
Key Terms & Data
Ashoka's edicts3rd century BCE; 33 major edicts; dhamma = righteous rule; religious tolerance; welfare state
Article 32"Right to Constitutional Remedies" β€” 5 types of writs; approach SC directly for FR violation
Preamble valuesSovereign | Socialist | Secular | Democratic | Republic + JELF (Justice, Equality, Liberty, Fraternity)
14.3Types of authority and citizen's role
  • Max Weber's three types of legitimate authority: (1) Traditional authority: based on long-established custom and tradition (monarchy, chieftainship β€” "we have always done it this way"). (2) Charismatic authority: based on exceptional personal qualities of a leader (Gandhi, Napoleon, Hitler). (3) Legal-rational authority: based on established rules and laws (modern democracies, bureaucracies).
  • In Indian political thought: functional authority (those who perform functions for the community β€” teachers, doctors, administrators), sensitive authority (responsive to people's needs β€” good governance), welfare-oriented authority (focused on well-being of all).
  • Citizens' role in a democracy: voting (Article 326), participating in elections (standing for office), paying taxes (funds public goods), following laws, engaging in civic life, holding government accountable through RTI (Right to Information), civil society, and free press.
  • Fundamental Duties (Article 51A, added 11th Amendment 1976): 11 duties β€” abide by Constitution, national anthem, national flag; protect sovereignty; promote harmony; protect environment; develop scientific temper; protect public property; strive for excellence.
Key Terms & Data
Weber's authority typesTraditional | Charismatic | Legal-rational (modern democracy = legal-rational)
Article 51AFundamental Duties (11); added by 42nd Amendment 1976; not justiciable but morally binding
RTI Act 2005Right to Information; citizens can ask for government records; promotes accountability and transparency
Theme 15From Ideas to Startups
Entrepreneurship, innovation, MSMEs, startup ecosystem, business plan, Make in India
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 3 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
15.1Entrepreneurship and innovation
  • Entrepreneur: person who identifies a problem or opportunity, takes calculated risks, organises resources (land, labour, capital), and creates a business to address it.
  • Importance: drives innovation, creates jobs, generates wealth, solves social problems, fuels economic growth.
  • Key resources for a business: financial capital (money), physical capital (equipment, land, buildings), human capital (skilled workers), social capital (networks, trust), intellectual capital (ideas, patents, brand).
  • Creative destruction (Schumpeter): process by which new innovations destroy existing industries and create new ones. Example: smartphones destroyed camera/music player industries; e-commerce disrupts physical retail; EVs may destroy ICE car industry.
  • India's successful entrepreneurs: Dhirubhai Ambani (Reliance), Narayana Murthy (Infosys), Nandan Nilekani (Aadhaar), Byju Raveendran (BYJU'S), Ritesh Agarwal (OYO), Vijay Shekhar Sharma (Paytm).
Key Terms & Data
Schumpeter (1942)Creative destruction: new innovations destroy old industries β†’ economic progress and disruption
India startup ranking3rd largest startup ecosystem globally (2024); 100+ unicorns (startups valued >$1 billion)
15.2India's startup ecosystem and government initiatives
  • India has the 3rd largest startup ecosystem globally (after USA and China). Over 100 unicorns (companies valued over $1 billion).
  • Startup India (2016): flagship initiative; simplifies registration, provides tax exemptions (3 years), connects startups to funding (Fund of Funds), reduces regulatory burden. Definition: < 10 years old, turnover < β‚Ή100 crore, innovative business model.
  • Make in India (2014): initiative to transform India into a global manufacturing hub; focuses on 25 sectors (electronics, automobiles, defence, textiles); FDI up from $36 billion (2014) to $84 billion (2022).
  • Digital India: improve digital infrastructure, deliver e-government services, increase digital literacy; Aadhaar (1.3 billion enrolled), UPI (β‚Ή18+ lakh crore monthly transactions), GeM (government e-marketplace).
  • MSMEs (Micro, Small, and Medium Enterprises): backbone of Indian economy; contribute β‰ˆ 30% of GDP, β‰ˆ 40% of exports, employ β‰ˆ 11 crore people. Micro: <β‚Ή1 crore turnover; Small: β‚Ή1–10 crore; Medium: β‚Ή10–50 crore.
Key Terms & Data
MSMEs contributionβ‰ˆ 30% of India's GDP | β‰ˆ 40% of exports | employ β‰ˆ 11 crore people
Startup India (2016)Tax exemption 3 years + simplified registration + Fund of Funds (β‚Ή10,000 crore)
UPI transactionsβ‚Ή18+ lakh crore monthly (2024); 100+ crore transactions/month; model being exported globally
15.3Stages of starting a business and basic accounting
  • Stages of starting a business: (1) Identify a problem/opportunity; (2) Validate the idea (market research, surveys); (3) Write a business plan; (4) Arrange funding (bootstrap, angel investor, VC, bank loan); (5) Register the business; (6) Build the product/service (MVP β€” minimum viable product); (7) Launch and market; (8) Scale up.
  • Business plan: formal document describing the business, its products/services, market, competition, financial projections, and how it will make money. Key sections: Executive Summary, Business Description, Market Analysis, Organisation, Products/Services, Marketing, Financial Plan.
  • Basic accounting: Assets (what business owns β€” cash, inventory, equipment), Liabilities (what business owes β€” loans, payables), Equity = Assets βˆ’ Liabilities. Profit = Revenue βˆ’ Total Costs. Balance sheet shows financial position at a point in time.
  • Types of business: Sole proprietorship (one owner), Partnership, Private Limited Company (Pvt. Ltd.), Public Limited Company (Ltd.), Cooperative society.
Key Terms & Data
Accounting equationAssets = Liabilities + Equity (always balanced)
Profit formulaProfit = Revenue βˆ’ (Fixed costs + Variable costs)
Break-even pointWhen Total Revenue = Total Cost; no profit, no loss
Simple interestSI = P Γ— R Γ— T / 100 | Compound: A = P(1 + R/100)^T
Theme 16Smart Ways to Manage Your Finances
Personal finance, inflation, simple vs compound interest, budgeting, investment, insurance, income tax
◻ Not started
▾ Sub-topics & dates📄 4 sub-topics
Sub-topic · Key Points · Dates & Terms🏫 School date✅ Done date
16.1Personal financial management
  • Personal finance: managing your income, spending, saving, and investing to achieve financial goals.
  • Why it matters: prevents debt, ensures financial security, helps achieve goals (education, house, retirement), reduces stress.
  • Income sources: salary/wages, business profit, rental income, interest income, dividends, freelance work.
  • Fixed expenses: rent, EMI, insurance premium (same every month). Variable expenses: food, entertainment, clothing (change each month). Essential vs discretionary spending.
  • Inflation: sustained rise in general price level over time; reduces purchasing power. If inflation is 6%, β‚Ή100 today will buy what β‚Ή94 buys next year. Measured by CPI (Consumer Price Index) and WPI (Wholesale Price Index) in India.
Key Terms & Data
Purchasing power effectReal value = Nominal value / (1 + inflation rate)
India inflation targetRBI targets CPI inflation at 4% (+/- 2%); controlled by repo rate
Rule of 72Years to double money = 72 / Interest rate % (e.g. 8% β†’ 72/8 = 9 years)
16.2Simple vs compound interest and budgeting
  • Simple Interest (SI): interest calculated only on the principal amount; does not compound.
  • Compound Interest (CI): interest calculated on principal PLUS accumulated interest; money grows faster; Einstein called it "eighth wonder of the world."
  • Budgeting: plan for how to spend your income each month. 50-30-20 rule: 50% needs (rent, food), 30% wants (entertainment, dining out), 20% savings.
  • Emergency fund: 3–6 months of expenses saved in a liquid account for unexpected events (job loss, medical emergency).
Key Terms & Data
Simple InterestSI = P Γ— R Γ— T / 100
Amount (SI)A = P + SI = P(1 + RT/100)
Compound InterestA = P(1 + R/100)^T | CI = A - P
SI vs CI (difference)CI > SI for same P, R, T when T > 1 year
50-30-20 budget rule50% Needs | 30% Wants | 20% Savings/Investments
16.3Savings, investment and insurance
  • Savings instruments: Savings bank account (3–4% interest), Fixed Deposit (5–7.5%), Recurring Deposit, PPF (Public Provident Fund, 7.1% tax-free), NSC (National Savings Certificate).
  • Investment instruments (higher return, higher risk): Stocks/Equities (ownership in company, high risk/return), Bonds (lending to company/government, lower risk), Mutual Funds (pooled investment in stocks/bonds; managed by fund manager), ETF (Exchange Traded Fund).
  • Risk and return: higher risk β†’ higher potential return. Diversification reduces risk β€” "don't put all eggs in one basket."
  • Insurance: protection against financial risk. Life insurance (protects family if you die); Health insurance (covers medical costs); Vehicle insurance (mandatory for vehicles); Property insurance. Premiums paid regularly; claim paid on insured event.
  • Term insurance: pure life cover, no maturity value, low premium. Endowment/ULIP: combines insurance and investment, higher premium.
Key Terms & Data
PPF rate7.1% p.a. (2024); tax-free returns; 15-year lock-in; government-backed
Mutual fund returnsEquity MF: 12-15% long-term historical average | Debt MF: 6-8%
SIP (Systematic Investment Plan)Invest fixed amount monthly in MF; rupee cost averaging reduces risk; power of compounding
16.4Income tax and personal finance decisions
  • Income tax: tax on income earned by individuals and businesses; paid to central government.
  • Progressive tax: higher income β†’ higher tax rate. India's tax slabs (New Regime, 2024): up to β‚Ή3 lakh: 0%; β‚Ή3–7 lakh: 5%; β‚Ή7–10 lakh: 10%; β‚Ή10–12 lakh: 15%; β‚Ή12–15 lakh: 20%; above β‚Ή15 lakh: 30%.
  • Deductions: can reduce taxable income under old tax regime β€” PPF, life insurance premium (80C), health insurance (80D), home loan interest (24b).
  • TDS (Tax Deducted at Source): employer deducts tax from salary before paying; simplifies tax collection.
  • PAN card (Permanent Account Number): 10-digit alphanumeric; mandatory for financial transactions >β‚Ή50,000; required for filing returns, opening bank accounts, investments.
  • Why pay taxes? Funds public goods β€” roads, schools, hospitals, defence, police, MGNREGA, PDS. Tax evasion harms society.
Key Terms & Data
New tax regime slabs (2024)β‚Ή0-3L: 0% | β‚Ή3-7L: 5% | β‚Ή7-10L: 10% | β‚Ή10-12L: 15% | β‚Ή12-15L: 20% | >β‚Ή15L: 30%
Income tax formulaTax = Taxable income Γ— Tax rate (slab-wise) βˆ’ Rebate/Deductions
TDSEmployer deducts tax at source β†’ pays to govt β†’ employee files return at year end
Class 9 Social Science (087) · CBSE Syllabus 2026–27 · GEMS New Millennium School Dubai
New integrated thematic syllabus | Part 1 + Part 2 | Textbooks: Social Science Part 1 & Part 2 (NCERT 2026–27)